Modern Forensic Tools and Devices: Trends in Criminal Investigation

MODERN FORENSIC TOOLS AND DEVICES The book offers a comprehensive overview of the latest technologies and techniques used in forensic investigations and highlights the potential impact of these advancements on the field. Technology has played a pivotal role in advancing forensic science over the years, particularly in modern-day criminal investigations. In recent years, significant advancements in forensic tools and devices have enabled investigators to gather and analyze evidence more efficiently than ever. Modern Forensic Tools and Devices: Trends in Criminal Investigation is a comprehensive guide to the latest technologies and techniques used in forensic science. This book covers a wide range of topics, from computer forensics and personal digital assistants to emerging analytical techniques for forensic samples. A section of the book provides detailed explanations of each technology and its applications in forensic investigations, along with case studies and real-life examples to illustrate their effectiveness. One critical aspect of this book is its focus on emerging trends in forensic science. The book covers new technologies such as cloud and social media forensics, vehicle forensics, facial recognition and reconstruction, automated fingerprint identification systems, and sensor-based devices for trace evidence, to name a few. Its thoroughly detailed chapters expound upon spectroscopic analytical techniques in forensic science, DNA sequencing, rapid DNA tests, bio-mimetic devices for evidence detection, forensic photography, scanners, microscopes, and recent advancements in forensic tools. The book also provides insights into forensic sampling and sample preparation techniques, which are crucial for ensuring the reliability of forensic evidence. Furthermore, the book explains the importance of proper sampling and the role it plays in the accuracy of forensic analysis. Audience The book is an essential resource for forensic scientists, law enforcement officials, and anyone interested in the advancements in forensic science such as engineers, materials scientists, and device makers.

Table of Contents:
Preface xix 1 Computer Forensics and Personal Digital Assistants 1 Muhammad Qadeer, Chaudhery Ghazanfer Hussain and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain 1.1 Introduction 2 1.1.1 Computer and Digital Forensics 2 1.2 Digital Forensics Classification 3 1.3 Digital Evidence 8 1.4 Information Used in Investigation to Find Digital Evidence 8 1.5 Short History of Digital/Computer Forensics 10 1.6 The World of Crimes 12 1.6.1 Cybercrimes vs. Traditional Crimes 12 1.7 Computer Forensics Investigation Steps 15 1.8 Report Generation of Forensic Findings Through Software Tools 17 1.9 Importance of Forensics Report 18 1.10 Guidelines for Report Writing 18 1.11 Objectives of Computer Forensics 19 1.12 Challenges Faced by Computer Forensics 20 References 20 2 Network and Data Analysis Tools for Forensic Science 23 Shrutika Singla, Shruthi Subhash and Amarnath Mishra 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Necessity for Data Analysis 25 2.2.1 Operational Troubleshooting 25 2.2.2 Log Monitoring 25 2.2.3 Data Recovery 25 2.2.4 Data Acquisition 25 2.3 Data Analysis Process 26 2.3.1 Acquisition 26 2.3.2 Examination 26 2.3.3 Utilization 26 2.3.4 Review 26 2.4 Network Security and Forensics 26 2.5 Digital Forensic Investigation Process 27 2.5.1 Data Identification 28 2.5.2 Project Planning 28 2.5.3 Data Capture 29 2.5.4 Data Processing 29 2.5.5 Data Analysis 29 2.5.6 Report Generation 29 2.6 Tools for Network and Data Analysis 29 2.6.1 EnCase Forensic Imager Tool 30 2.6.2 Cellebrite UFED 31 2.6.3 FTK Imager Tool 31 2.6.4 Paladin Forensic Suite 32 2.6.5 Digital Forensic Framework (DFF) 32 2.6.6 Forensic Imager Tx 1 32 2.6.7 Tableau TD2U Forensic Duplicator 32 2.6.8 Oxygen Forensics Detective 33 2.6.9 SANS Investigative Forensic Toolkit (SIFT) 33 2.6.10 Win Hex 33 2.6.11 Computer Online Forensic Evidence Extractor (COFEE) 34 2.6.12 WindowsSCOPE Toolkit 34 2.6.13 ProDiscover Forensics 34 2.6.14 Sleuth Kit 35 2.6.15 Caine 35 2.6.16 Magnet RAM Capture 35 2.6.17 X-Ways Forensics 36 2.6.18 WireShark Tool 36 2.6.19 Xplico 36 2.6.20 e-Fensee 36 2.7 Evolution of Network Data Analysis Tools Over the Years 37 2.8 Conclusion 37 References 38 3 Cloud and Social Media Forensics 41 Nilay Mistry and Sureel Vora 3.1 Introduction 42 3.2 Background Study 42 3.2.1 Social Networking Trend Among Users 42 3.2.2 Pros and Cons of Social Networking and Chat Apps 43 3.2.3 Privacy Issues in Social Networking and Chat Apps 44 3.2.4 Usefulness of Personal Information for Law Enforcements 45 3.2.5 Cloud Computing and Social Media Applications 45 3.2.5.1 SaaS Model 45 3.2.5.2 PaaS Model 46 3.2.5.3 IaaS Model 46 3.3 Technical Study 46 3.3.1 User-Agent and Its Working 46 3.3.2 Automated Agents and Their User-Agent String 47 3.3.3 User Agent Spoofing and Sniffing 47 3.3.4 Link Forwarding and Rich Preview 47 3.3.5 WebView and its User Agent 48 3.3.6 HTTP Referrer and Referring Page 48 3.3.7 Application ID 48 3.4 Methodology 49 3.4.1 Testing Environment 49 3.4.2 Research and Analysis 49 3.4.2.1 Activities Performed 51 3.4.2.2 Information Gathered 52 3.4.2.3 Analysis of Gathered Information 53 3.4.3 Activity Performed - Opening the Forwarded Link 59 3.5 Protection Against Leakage 60 3.6 Conclusion 60 3.7 Future Work 61 References 61 4 Vehicle Forensics 65 Disha Bhatnagar and Piyush K. Rao 4.1 Introduction 65 4.1.1 Motives Behind Vehicular Theft 67 4.1.1.1 Insurance Fraud 67 4.1.1.2 Resale and Export 67 4.1.1.3 Temporary Transportation 68 4.1.1.4 Commitment of Another Crime 68 4.2 Intervehicle Communication and Vehicle Internal Networks 68 4.3 Classification of Vehicular Forensics 70 4.3.1 Automative Vehicle Forensics 71 4.3.1.1 Live Forensics 71 4.3.1.2 Post-Mortem Forensics 71 4.3.1.3 Physical Tools for Forensic Investigation 73 4.3.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Forensics (UAV)/Drone Forensics 74 4.3.2.1 Methodology 74 4.3.2.2 Steps Involved in Drone Forensics 75 4.3.2.3 Challenges in UAV Forensics 76 4.4 Vehicle Identification Number 76 4.4.1 Placement in a Vehicle and Usage of a VIN 77 4.4.2 Vehicle Identification 78 4.4.2.1 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Certification Label 79 4.4.2.2 Anti-Theft Label 79 4.4.2.3 Stamping on Vehicle Parts 79 4.4.2.4 Secondary and Confidential VIN 79 4.5 Serial Number Restoration 79 4.5.1 Restoration Methods 80 4.5.1.1 Chemical Etching 80 4.5.1.2 Electrolytic Etching 81 4.5.1.3 Heat Treatment 81 4.5.1.4 Magnetic Particle Method 81 4.5.1.5 Electron Channeling Contrast 81 4.6 Conclusion 81 References 82 5 Facial Recognition and Reconstruction 85 Payal V. Bhatt, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani 5.1 Introduction 86 5.2 Facial Recognition 86 5.3 Facial Reconstruction 87 5.4 Techniques for Facial Recognition 88 5.4.1 Image-Based Facial Recognition 89 5.4.1.1 Appearance-Based Method 89 5.4.1.2 Model-Based Method 90 5.4.1.3 Texture-Based Method 90 5.4.2 Video-Based Facial Recognition 91 5.4.2.1 Sequence-Based Method 91 5.4.2.2 Set-Based Method 92 5.5 Techniques for Facial Reconstruction 92 5.5.1 Manual Method 93 5.5.2 Graphical Method 94 5.5.3 Computerized Method 94 5.6 Challenges in Forensic Face Recognition 95 5.6.1 Facial Aging 96 5.6.2 Face Marks 97 5.6.3 Forensic Sketch Recognition 97 5.6.4 Face Recognition in Video 98 5.6.5 Near Infrared (NIR) Face Recognition 99 5.7 Soft Biometrics 99 5.8 Application Areas of Facial Recognition 100 5.9 Application of Facial Reconstruction 101 5.10 Conclusion 102 References 102 6 Automated Fingerprint Identification System 107 Piyush K. Rao, Shreya Singh, Aayush Dey, Deepak Rawtani and Garvita Parikh Abbreviations 108 6.1 Introduction 108 6.2 Ten-Digit Fingerprint Classification 110 6.3 Henry Faulds Classification System 110 6.4 Manual Method for the Identification of Latent Fingerprint 111 6.5 Need for Automation 112 6.6 Automated Fingerprint Identification System 112 6.7 History of Automatic Fingerprint Identification System 113 6.8 Automated Method of Analysis 113 6.9 Segmentation 114 6.10 Enhancement and Quality Assessment 115 6.11 Feature Extraction 117 6.12 Latent Fingerprint Matching 118 6.13 Latent Fingerprint Database 120 6.14 Conclusion 120 References 121 7 Forensic Sampling and Sample Preparation 125 Disha Bhatnagar, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani 7.1 Introduction 126 7.2 Advancement in Technologies Used in Forensic Science 126 7.3 Evidences 127 7.3.1 Classification of Evidences 127 7.3.1.1 Direct Evidence 127 7.2.1.2 Circumstantial Evidence 127 7.4 Collection of Evidences 129 7.4.1 Sampling Methods 130 7.5 Sample Preparation Techniques for Analytical Instruments 133 7.5.1 Conventional Methods of Sample Preparation 134 7.5.2 Solvent Extraction 134 7.5.2.1 Distillation 135 7.5.2.2 Acid Digestion 135 7.5.2.3 Solid Phase Extraction 136 7.5.2.4 Soxhlet Extraction 137 7.5.3 Modern Methods of Sample Preparation 138 7.5.3.1 Accelerated Solvent Extraction 138 7.5.3.2 Microwave Digestion 138 7.5.3.3 Ultrasonication-Assisted Extraction 139 7.5.3.4 Microextraction 139 7.5.3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 142 7.5.3.6 QuEChERS 143 7.5.3.7 Membrane Extraction 143 7.6 Conclusion 144 7.7 Future Perspective 144 References 145 8 Spectroscopic Analysis Techniques in Forensic Science 149 Payal V. Bhatt and Deepak Rawtani 8.1 Introduction 150 8.2 Spectroscopy 150 8.2.1 Spectroscopy and its Applications 153 8.3 Spectroscopy and Forensics 155 8.4 Spectroscopic Techniques and their Forensic Applications 156 8.4.1 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy 156 8.4.1.1 Application of X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy in Forensics 157 8.4.2 UV/Visible Spectroscopy 159 8.4.2.1 Application of UV/Vis Spectroscopy in Forensics 160 8.4.3 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 162 8.4.3.1 Application of Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy in Forensics 163 8.4.4 Infrared Spectroscopy 165 8.4.4.1 Application of Infrared Spectroscopy in Forensics 166 8.4.5 Raman Spectroscopy 167 8.4.5.1 Application of Raman Spectroscopy in Forensics 168 8.4.6 Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy 171 8.4.6.1 Application of Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy in Forensics 172 8.4.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 173 8.4.7.1 Application of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Forensics 174 8.4.8 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy 176 8.4.8.1 Application of Atomic Emission Spectroscopy in Forensics 177 8.4.9 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy 178 8.4.9.1 Application of X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 179 8.4.10 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 181 8.4.10.1 Application of Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 182 8.4.11 Phosphorescence Spectroscopy 183 8.4.11.1 Application of Phosphorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 184 8.4.12 Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy 186 8.4.12.1 Application of Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 187 8.4.13 Chemiluminescence Spectroscopy 188 8.4.13.1 Application of Chemiluminescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 189 8.5 Conclusion 190 References 190 9 Emerging Analytical Techniques in Forensic Samples 199 Disha Bhatnagar and Piyush K. Rao 9.1 Introduction 199 9.2 Separation Techniques 200 9.2.1 Chromatography 200 9.2.1.1 Gas Chromatography 202 9.2.2 Liquid Chromatography 208 9.2.3 Capillary Electrophoresis 211 9.3 Mass Spectrometry 213 9.4 Tandem Mass (MS/MS) 219 9.5 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 220 9.6 Laser Ablation–Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 221 9.7 Conclusion 222 References 223 10 DNA Sequencing and Rapid DNA Tests 225 Archana Singh and Deepak Rawtani 10.1 Introduction 226 10.1.1 DNA Sequencing 226 10.1.2 DNA Profiling Analysis Methods 228 10.1.3 The Rapid DNA Test 228 10.2 DNA – The Hereditary Material 230 10.2.1 DNA – Structure and Genetic Information 230 10.3 DNA Sequencing 231 10.3.1 Maxam and Gilbert Method 232 10.3.2 Chain Termination Method or Sanger’s Sequencing 233 10.3.3 Automated Method 235 10.3.4 Semiautomated Method 235 10.3.5 Pyrosequencing Method 236 10.3.6 Clone by Clone Sequencing Method 237 10.3.7 The Whole-Genome Shotgun Sequencing Method 237 10.3.8 Next-Generation DNA Sequencing 238 10.4 Laboratory Processing and DNA Evidence Analysis 238 10.4.1 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism 239 10.4.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 239 10.4.3 Short Tandem Repeats (STR) 241 10.4.4 Mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA) 241 10.4.5 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (aflp) 242 10.4.6 Y-Chromosome 242 10.5 Rapid DNA Test 243 10.5.1 The Evolution of the Rapid DNA Test 244 10.5.2 Rapid DNA Instrument 245 10.5.3 Methodology of Rapid DNA 250 10.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 250 References 251 11 Sensor-Based Devices for Trace Evidence 265 Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani 11.1 Introduction 266 11.2 Immunosensors in Forensic Science 267 11.2.1 Direct Immunosensing Strategies 268 11.2.1.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance 268 11.2.1.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 274 11.2.1.3 Piezoelectric Immunosensors 275 11.2.2 Indirect Immunosensing Strategies 276 11.2.2.1 Optical Immunosensors 276 11.2.2.2 Electrochemical Immunosensors 280 11.3 Genosensors and Cell-Based Biosensors in Forensic Science 282 11.4 Aptasensors in Forensic Science 283 11.4.1 Forensic Applications of Aptasensors 287 11.5 Enzymatic Biosensors in Forensic Science 288 11.5.1 Applications of Enzymatic Biosensors for Trace Evidence Analysis 289 11.6 Conclusion 289 References 290 12 Biomimetic Devices for Trace Evidence Detection 299 Manika and Astha Pandey 12.1 Introduction 300 12.2 Tools or Machines for Biomimetics 301 12.3 Methods of Biomimetics 302 12.4 Applications 302 12.4.1 Detection of Trace Evidences 302 12.4.1.1 Biomimetic Sniffing 302 12.4.1.2 L-Nicotine Detection 307 12.4.1.3 TNT Detection 307 12.4.2 Hybrid Materials to Medical Devices 309 12.4.2.1 Smart Drug Delivery Micro and Nanodevices 309 12.4.2.2 Nanodevices for Combination of Therapy and Theranostics 310 12.4.2.3 Continuous Biosensors for Glucose 310 12.4.2.4 Electro-Active Lenses 311 12.4.2.5 Smart Tattoos 311 12.5 Challenges for Biomimetics in Practice 311 12.6 Conclusion 312 References 314 13 Forensic Photography 315 Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani 13.1 Introduction 316 13.2 Forensic Photography and Its Purpose 316 13.3 Modern Principles of Forensic Photography 318 13.4 Fundamental Rules of Forensic Photography 319 13.4.1 Rule Number 1. Filling the Frame Space 319 13.4.2 Rule Number 2. Expansion of Depth of Field 320 13.4.3 Rule Number 3. Positioning the Film Plane 321 13.5 Camera Setup and Apparatus for Forensic Photography 321 13.6 The Dynamics of a Digital Camera 322 13.6.1 Types of Digital Cameras 323 13.6.2 Sensor Architecture 324 13.6.2.1 Full Frame 324 13.6.2.2 Frame Transfer 325 13.6.2.3 Interline Architecture 325 13.6.3 Spectral Response 325 13.6.4 Light Sensitivity and Noise Cancellation 326 13.6.5 Dynamic Range 326 13.6.6 Blooming and Anti-Blooming 326 13.6.7 Signal to Noise Ratio 326 13.6.8 Spatial Resolution 327 13.6.9 Frame Rate 327 13.7 Common Crime Scenarios and How They Must be Photographed 327 13.7.1 Photography of Road Traffic Accidents 328 13.7.2 Photography of Homicides 329 13.7.3 Arson Crime Scenes 330 13.7.4 Photography of Print Impressions at a Crime Scene 330 13.7.5 Tire Marks and Their Photography 331 13.7.6 Photography of Skin Wounds 331 13.8 Conclusion 332 References 332 14 Scanners and Microscopes 335 Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani 14.1 Introduction 336 14.2 Scanners in Forensic Science 337 14.2.1 Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 338 14.2.1.1 Benefits of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 338 14.2.1.2 Drawbacks of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 338 14.2.1.3 Applications in Forensic Science 339 14.2.2 Structured Light Scanners 341 14.2.2.1 Applications in Forensic Science 341 14.2.3 Intraoral Optical Scanners 342 14.2.3.1 Applications in Forensic Science 342 14.2.4 Computerized Tomography Scanner 343 14.2.4.1 Applications in Forensic Science 343 14.3 Microscopes in Forensic Science 344 14.3.1 Light Microscopes 345 14.3.1.1 Compound Microscope 345 14.3.1.2 Comparison Microscope 347 14.3.1.3 Polarizing Microscope 348 14.3.1.4 Stereoscopic Microscope 348 14.3.2 Electron Microscopes 349 14.3.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscope 349 14.3.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscope 350 14.3.3 Probing Microscopes 350 14.3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscope 350 14.4 Conclusion 355 References 356 15 Recent Advances in Forensic Tools 361 Tatenda Justice Gunda, Charles Muchabaiwa, Piyush K. Rao, Aayush Dey and Deepak Rawtani 15.1 Introduction 362 15.1.1 Recent Forensic Tool: Trends in Crime Investigations 363 15.1.2 Recent Forensic Device 364 15.2 Classification of Forensic Tools and Devices 364 15.2.1 Forensic Chemistry 365 15.2.1.1 Sensors 365 15.2.1.2 Chromatographic Techniques 368 15.2.1.3 Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) 369 15.2.1.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 370 15.2.1.5 Liquid Chromatography (LC/MS/MS) Rapid Toxicology Screening System 370 15.2.1.6 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 372 15.2.1.7 Drug Testing Toxicology of Hair 372 15.2.2 Question Document and Fingerprinting 373 15.2.2.1 Electrostatic Detection Analysis (esda) 374 15.2.2.2 Video Spectral Comparator 375 15.2.2.3 Fingerprinting 376 15.2.3 Forensic Physics 377 15.2.3.1 Facial Recognition 377 15.2.3.2 3D Facial Reconstruction 378 15.2.3.3 Arsenal Automated Ballistic Identification System (ABIS) 378 15.2.3.4 Audio Video Aided Forensic Analysis 379 15.2.3.5 Brain Electrical Oscillations Signature (beos) 379 15.2.3.6 Phenom Desktop Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 379 15.2.3.7 X-Ray Spectroscopy EDX 380 15.2.3.8 Drones/UAVs 380 15.2.4 Forensic Biology 382 15.2.4.1 Massive Parallel Sequencing (MPS) 384 15.2.4.2 Virtopsy 384 15.2.4.3 Three-Dimensional Imaging System 385 15.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 385 References 386 16 Future Aspects of Modern Forensic Tools and Devices 393 Swathi Satish, Gargi Phadke and Deepak Rawtani 16.1 Introduction 394 16.2 Forensic Tools 395 16.2.1 Emerging Trends in Forensic Tools 396 16.2.2 Future Facets of Forensic Tools 397 16.2.2.1 Analytical Forensic Tools 397 16.2.2.2 Digital Forensic Tools 399 16.3 Forensic Devices 403 16.3.1 Emerging Trends in Forensic Devices 403 16.3.2 Future Aspects of Forensic Devices 404 16.4 Conclusion 409 References 410 Index 415