One-Dimensional Nanostructures: Principles and Applications

Reviews the latest research breakthroughs and applications Since the discovery of carbon nanotubes in 1991, one-dimensional nanostructures have been at the forefront of nanotechnology research, promising to provide the building blocks for a new generation of nanoscale electronic and optoelectronic devices. With contributions from 68 leading international experts, this book reviews both the underlying principles as well as the latest discoveries and applications in the field, presenting the state of the technology. Readers will find expert coverage of all major classes of one-dimensional nanostructures, including carbon nanotubes, semiconductor nanowires, organic molecule nanostructures, polymer nanofibers, peptide nanostructures, and supramolecular nanostructures. Moreover, the book offers unique insights into the future of one-dimensional nanostructures, with expert forecasts of new research breakthroughs and applications. One-Dimensional Nanostructures collects and analyzes a wealth of key research findings and applications, with detailed coverage of: Synthesis Properties Energy applications Photonics and optoelectronics applications Sensing, plasmonics, electronics, and biosciences applications Practical case studies demonstrate how the latest applications work. Tables throughout the book summarize key information, and diagrams enable readers to grasp complex concepts and designs. References at the end of each chapter serve as a gateway to the literature in the field. With its clear explanations of the underlying principles of one-dimensional nanostructures, this book is ideal for students, researchers, and academics in chemistry, physics, materials science, and engineering. Moreover, One-Dimensional Nanostructures will help readers advance their own investigations in order to develop the next generation of applications.

Table of Contents:
Foreword xv Preface xvii Contributors xix 1 One-Dimensional Semiconductor Nanostructure Growth with Templates 1 Zhang Zhang and Stephan Senz 1.1 Introduction, 1 1.2 Anodic Aluminum Oxide (AAO) as Templates, 4 1.2.1 Synthesis of Self-Organized AAO Membrane, 4 1.2.2 Synthesis of Polycrystalline Si Nanotubes, 5 1.2.3 AAO as Template for Si Nanowire Epitaxy, 8 1.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 16 Acknowledgments, 16 References, 16 2 Metal–Ligand Systems for Construction of One-Dimensional Nanostructures 19 Rub´en Mas-Ballest´e and F´elix Zamora 2.1 Introduction, 19 2.2 Microstructures Based on 1D Coordination Polymers, 20 2.2.1 Preparation Methods, 20 2.2.2 Structures, 21 2.2.3 Shape and Size Control, 23 2.2.4 Methods for Study of Microstructures, 24 2.2.5 Formation Mechanisms, 25 2.2.6 Properties and Applications, 26 2.3 Bundles and Single Molecules on Surfaces Based on 1D Coordination Polymers, 28 2.3.1 Isolation Methods and Morphological Characterization, 28 2.3.2 Tools for the Studies at the Molecular Level, 34 2.3.3 Properties Studied at Single-Molecule Level, 36 2.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 37 Acknowledgments, 38 References, 38 3 Supercritical Fluid–Liquid–Solid (SFLS) Growth of Semiconductor Nanowires 41 Brian A. Korgel 3.1 Introduction, 41 3.2 The SFLS Growth Mechanism, 42 3.2.1 Supercritical Fluids as a Reaction Medium for VLS-Like Nanowire Growth, 43 3.2.2 SFLS-Grown Nanowires, 44 3.3 Properties and Applications of SFLS-Grown Nanowires, 51 3.3.1 Mechanical Properties, 52 3.3.2 Printed Nanowire Field-Effect Transistors, 57 3.3.3 Silicon-Nanowire-Based Lithium Ion Battery Anodes, 59 3.3.4 Semiconductor Nanowire Fabric, 60 3.3.5 Other Applications, 61 3.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 61 Acknowledgments, 62 References, 62 4 Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires 65 Zhen Li, Gaoqing (Max) Lu, Qiao Sun, Sean C. Smith, and Zhonghua Zhu 4.1 Introduction, 65 4.2 Theoretical Calculations, 66 4.2.1 Effective Mass Multiband Method (EMMM), 66 4.2.2 Empirical Pseudopotential Method (EPM), 68 4.2.3 Charge Patching Method (CPM), 69 4.3 Synthesis of Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires, 70 4.3.1 Oriented Attachment, 71 4.3.2 Template Strategy, 76 4.3.3 Solution–Liquid–Solid Growth, 79 4.4 Properties of Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires, 85 4.4.1 Optical Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires, 85 4.4.2 Electronic Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires, 87 4.4.3 Magnetic Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires, 89 4.5 Applications of Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires, 90 4.5.1 Semiconductor Nanowires for Energy Conversion, 90 4.5.2 Semiconductor Nanowires in Life Sciences, 92 4.6 Conclusion and Outlook, 94 Acknowledgments, 95 References, 95 5 Core–Shell Effect on Nucleation and Growth of Epitaxial Silicide in Nanowire of Silicon 105 Yi-Chia Chou and King-Ning Tu 5.1 Introduction, 105 5.2 Core–Shell Effects on Materials, 105 5.3 Nucleation and Growth of Silicides in Silicon Nanowires, 106 5.3.1 Nanoscale Silicide Formation by Point Contact Reaction, 107 5.3.2 Supply Limit Reaction in Point Contact Reactions, 107 5.3.3 Repeating Event of Nucleation, 107 5.4 Core–Shell Effect on Nucleation of Nanoscale Silicides, 109 5.4.1 Introduction to Solid-State Nucleation, 109 5.4.2 Stepflow of Si Nanowire Growth at Silicide/Si Interface, 109 5.4.3 Observation of Homogeneous Nucleation in Silicide Epitaxial Growth, 110 5.4.4 Theory of Homogeneous Nucleation and Correlation with Experiments, 111 5.4.5 Homogeneous Nucleation–Supersaturation, 113 5.4.6 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Nucleation of Nanoscale Silicides, 113 Acknowledgments, 115 References, 115 6 Selected Properties of Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes 119 H. S. S. Ramakrishna Matte, K. S. Subrahmanyam, A. Govindaraj, and C. N. R. Rao 6.1 Introduction, 119 6.2 Structure and Properties of Graphene, 119 6.2.1 Electronic Structure, 119 6.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy, 120 6.2.3 Chemical Doping, 121 6.2.4 Electronic and Magnetic Properties, 122 6.2.5 Molecular Charge Transfer, 127 6.2.6 Decoration with Metal Nanoparticles, 128 6.3 Structure and Properties of Carbon Nanotubes, 130 6.3.1 Structure, 130 6.3.2 Raman Spectroscopy, 132 6.3.3 Electrical Properties, 133 6.3.4 Doping, 134 6.3.5 Molecular Charge Transfer, 136 6.3.6 Decoration with Metal Nanoparticles, 137 6.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 138 References, 138 7 One-Dimensional Semiconductor Nanowires: Synthesis and Raman Scattering 145 Jun Zhang, Jian Wu, and Qihua Xiong 7.1 Introduction, 145 7.2 Synthesis and Growth Mechanism of 1D Semiconductor Nanowires, 146 7.2.1 Nanowire Synthesis, 146 7.2.2 Synthesis of 1D Semiconductor Nanowires, 147 7.2.3 1D Semiconductor Heterostructures, 151 7.3 Raman Scattering in 1D Nanowires, 153 7.3.1 Phonon Confinement Effect, 153 7.3.2 Radial Breathing Modes, 155 7.3.3 Surface Phonon Modes, 156 7.3.4 Antenna Effect, 158 7.3.5 Stimulated Raman Scattering, 160 7.4 Conclusions and Outlook, 161 Acknowledgment, 161 References, 161 8 Optical Properties and Applications of Hematite (α-Fe2O3) Nanostructures 167 Yichuan Ling, Damon A. Wheeler, Jin Zhong Zhang, and Yat Li 8.1 Introduction, 167 8.2 Synthesis of 1D Hematite Nanostructures, 167 8.2.1 Nanowires, 168 8.2.2 Nanotubes, 169 8.2.3 Element-Doped 1D Hematite Structures, 170 8.3 Optical Properties, 171 8.3.1 Electronic Transitions in Hematite, 171 8.3.2 Steady-State Absorption, 172 8.3.3 Photoluminescence, 174 8.4 Charge Carrier Dynamics in Hematite, 175 8.4.1 Background on Time-Resolved Studies of Nanostructures, 175 8.4.2 Carrier Dynamics of Hematite Nanostructures, 175 8.5 Applications, 178 8.5.1 Photocatalysis, 178 8.5.2 Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting, 179 8.5.3 Photovoltaics, 180 8.5.4 Gas Sensors, 181 8.5.5 Conclusion And Outlook, 181 Acknowledgments, 181 References, 181 9 Doping Effect on Novel Optical Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires 185 Bingsuo Zou, Guozhang Dai, and Ruibin Liu 9.1 Introduction, 185 9.2 Results and Discussion, 185 9.2.1 Bound Exciton Condensation in Mn(II)-Doped ZnO Nanowire, 185 9.2.2 Fe(III)-Doped ZnO Nanowire and Visible Emission Cavity Modes, 192 9.2.3 Sn(IV) Periodically Doped CdS Nanowire and Coupled Optical Cavity Modes, 199 9.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 203 Acknowledgment, 203 References, 203 10 Quantum Confinement Phenomena in Bioinspired and Biological Peptide Nanostructures 207 Gil Rosenman and Nadav Amdursky 10.1 Introduction, 207 10.2 Bioinspired Peptide Nanostructures, 208 10.3 Peptide Nanostructured Materials (PNM): Intrinsic Basic Physics, 209 10.4 Experimental Techniques With Peptide Nanotubes (PNTs), 209 10.4.1 PNT Vapor Deposition Method, 209 10.4.2 PNT Patterning, 211 10.5 Quantum Confinement in PNM Structures, 212 10.5.1 Quantum Dot Structure in Peptide Nanotubes and Spheres, 212 10.5.2 Structurally Induced Quantum Dot–to–Quantum Well Transition in Peptide Hydrogels, 219 10.5.3 Quantum Well Structure in Vapor-Deposited Peptide Nanofibers, 221 10.5.4 Thermally Induced Phase Transition in Peptide Quantum Structures, 225 10.5.5 Quantum Confinement in Amyloid Proteins, 229 10.6 Conclusions, 231 Acknowledgment, 233 References, 233 11 One-Dimensional Nanostructures for Energy Harvesting 237 Zhiyong Fan, Johnny C. Ho, and Baoling Huang 11.1 Introduction, 237 11.2 Growth and Fabrication of 1D Nanomaterials, 237 11.2.1 Generic Vapor-Phase Growth, 237 11.2.2 Direct Assembly of 1D Nanomaterials with Template-Based Growth, 238 11.3 1D Nanomaterials for Solar Energy Harvesting, 240 11.3.1 Fundamentals of Nanowire Photovoltaic Devices, 240 11.3.2 Performance Limiting Factors of Nanowire Solar Cells, 241 11.3.3 Investigation of Nanowire Array Properties, 242 11.3.4 Photovoltaic Devices Based on 1D Nanomaterial Arrays, 244 11.4 1D Nanomaterials for Piezoelectric Energy Conversion, 247 11.4.1 Piezoelectric Properties of ZnO Nanowires, 248 11.4.2 ZnO Nanowire Array Nanogenerators, 249 11.5 1D Nanomaterials for Thermoelectric Energy Conversion, 253 11.5.1 Thermoelectric Transport Properties, 254 11.5.2 Enhancement of ZT : From Bulk to Nanoscale, 256 11.5.3 Thermoelectric Nanowires, 257 11.5.4 Characterization of Thermoelectric Behavior of Nanowires, 261 11.6 Summary and Outlook, 263 Acknowledgment, 264 References, 264 12 p –n Junction Silicon Nanowire Arrays For Photovoltaic Applications 271 Jun Luo and Jing Zhu 12.1 Introduction, 271 12.2 Fabrication Of p − n Junction Silicon Nanowire Arrays, 271 12.2.1 Top–Down Approach, 271 12.2.2 Bottom–UP Approach, 273 12.3 Characterization of p − n Junctions in Silicon Nanowire Arrays, 274 12.4 Photovoltaic Application of p − n Junction Silicon Nanowire Arrays, 277 12.4.1 Photovoltaic Devices Based on Axial Junction Nanowire Arrays, 277 12.4.2 Photovoltaic Devices Based on Radial Junction Nanowire Arrays, 282 12.4.3 Photovoltaic Devices Based on Individual Junction Nanowires, 285 12.5 Conclusion and Outlook, 288 Acknowledgment, 291 References, 292 13 One-Dimensional Nanostructured Metal Oxides for Lithium Ion Batteries 295 Huiqiao Li, De Li, and Haoshen Zhou 13.1 Introduction, 295 13.2 Operating Principles of Lithium Ion Batteries, 295 13.3 Advantages of Nanomaterials for Lithium Batteries, 296 13.4 Cathode Materials of 1D Nanostructure, 297 13.4.1 Background, 297 13.4.2 Vanadium-Based Oxides, 298 13.4.3 Manganese-Based Oxides, 303 13.5 Anode Materials of 1D Nanostructure, 307 13.5.1 Background, 307 13.5.2 Titanium Oxides Based on Intercalation Reaction, 307 13.5.3 Metal Oxides Based on Conventional Reaction, 311 13.5.4 Tin- or Silicon-Based Materials, 313 13.6 Challenges and Perspectives of Nanomaterials, 315 13.7 Conclusion, 316 References, 317 14 Carbon Nanotube (CNT)-Based High-Performance Electronic and Optoelectronic Devices 321 Lian-Mao Peng, Zhiyong Zhang, Sheng Wang, and Yan Li 14.1 Introduction, 321 14.2 Controlled Growth Of Single-Walled CNT (SWCNT) Arrays on Substrates, 322 14.2.1 Catalysts for Growth of SWCNT Arrays, 322 14.2.2 Orientation Control of SWCNTs, 323 14.2.3 Position, Density, and Diameter Control of SWCNTs, 323 14.2.4 Bandgap and Property Control of SWCNTs, 323 14.3 Doping-Free Fabrication and Performance of CNT FETs, 324 14.3.1 High-Performance n- and p-Type CNT FETs, 325 14.3.2 Integration of High-κ Materials with CNT FETs, 326 14.3.3 Comparisons between Si- and CNT-Based FETs, 327 14.3.4 Temperature Performance of CNT FETs, 329 14.4 CNT-Based Optoelectronic Devices, 331 14.4.1 CNT-Based p–n Junction and Diode Characteristics, 331 14.4.2 CNT Photodetectors, 331 14.4.3 CNT Light Emitting Diodes, 333 14.5 Outlook, 335 Acknowledgment, 336 References, 336 15 Properties and Devices of Single One-Dimensional Nanostructure: Application of Scanning Probe Microscopy 339 Wei-Guang Xie, Jian-Bin Xu, and Jin An 15.1 Introduction, 339 15.2 Atomic Structures and Density of States, 340 15.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes, 340 15.2.2 Defects, 342 15.2.3 One-Dimensional Nanostructure of Silicon, 343 15.2.4 Other One-Dimensional Nanostructures, 344 15.2.5 Atomic Structure of Carbon Nanotubes by Atomic Force Microscopy, 344 15.3 In situ Device Characterization, 345 15.4 Substrate Effects, 350 15.5 Surface Effects, 351 15.6 Doping, 353 15.7 Summary, 356 Acknowledgments, 356 References, 356 16 More Recent Advances in One-Dimensional Metal Oxide Nanostructures: Optical and Optoelectronic Applications 359 Lei Liao and Xiangfeng Duan 16.1 Introduction, 359 16.2 Synthesis and Physical Properties of 1D Metal Oxide, 359 16.2.1 Top–Down Method, 360 16.2.2 Bottom–Up Approach, 360 16.2.3 Physical Properties of 1D Metal Oxide Nanostructures, 360 16.3 More Recent Advances in Device Application Based on 1D Metal Oxide Nanostructures, 360 16.3.1 Waveguides, 361 16.3.2 LEDs, 363 16.3.3 Lasing, 367 16.3.4 Solar Cells, 371 16.3.5 Photodetectors, 373 16.4 Challenges and Perspectives, 374 Acknowledgments, 375 References, 375 17 Organic One-Dimensional Nanostructures: Construction and Optoelectronic Properties 381 Yong Sheng Zhao and Jiannian Yao 17.1 Introduction, 381 17.2 Construction Strategies, 382 17.2.1 Self-Assembly in Liquid Phase, 382 17.2.2 Template-Induced Growth, 382 17.2.3 Synthesis of Organic 1D Nanocomposites in Liquid Phase, 383 17.2.4 Morphology Control with Molecular Design, 384 17.2.5 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD), 386 17.3 Optoelectronic Properties, 387 17.3.1 Multicolor Emission, 387 17.3.2 Electroluminescence and Field Emission, 387 17.3.3 Optical Waveguides, 388 17.3.4 Lasing, 389 17.3.5 Tunable Emission from Binary Organic Nanowires, 390 17.3.6 Waveguide Modulation, 391 17.3.7 Chemical Vapor Sensors, 392 17.4 Conclusion and Perspectives, 393 Acknowledgment, 393 References, 394 18 Controllable Growth and Assembly of One-Dimensional Structures of Organic Functional Materials for Optoelectronic Applications 397 Lang Jiang, Huanli Dong, and Wenping Hu 18.1 Introduction, 397 18.2 Synthetic Methods for Producing 1D Organic Nanostructures, 398 18.2.1 Vapor Methods, 398 18.2.2 Solution Methods, 399 18.3 Controllable Growth and Assembly of 1D Ordered Nanostructures, 400 18.3.1 Template/Mold-Assisted Methods, 400 18.3.2 Substrate-Induced Methods, 400 18.3.3 External-Force-Assisted Growth, 400 18.4 Optoelectronic Applications of 1D Nanostructures, 405 18.4.1 Organic Photovoltaic Cells, 405 18.4.2 Organic Field-Effect Transistors, 406 18.4.3 Photoswitches and Phototransistors, 408 18.5 Conclusion and Outlook, 408 Acknowledgments, 410 References, 410 19 Type II Antimonide-Based Superlattices: A One-Dimensional Bulk Semiconductor 415 Manijeh Razeghi and Binh-Minh Nguyen 19.1 Introduction, 415 19.2 Material System and Variants of Type II Superlattices, 415 19.2.1 The 6.1 Angstrom Family, 415 19.2.2 Type II InAs/GaSb Superlattices, 416 19.2.3 Variants of Sb-Based Superlattices, 416 19.3 One-Dimensional Physics of Type II Superlattices, 418 19.3.1 Qualitative Description of Type II Superlattices, 418 19.3.2 Numerical Calculation of Type II Superlattice Band Structure, 421 19.3.3 Band Structure Result, 424 19.3.4 M Structure Superlattices, 427 19.4 Type II Superlattices for Infrared Detection and Imaging, 428 19.4.1 Theoretical Modeling and Device Architecture Optimization, 428 19.4.2 Material Growth and Structural Characterization, 428 19.4.3 Device Fabrication, 429 19.4.4 Integrated Measurement System, 429 19.4.5 Focal Plane Arrays and Infrared Imaging, 430 19.5 Summary, 432 Acknowledgments, 432 References, 433 20 Quasi One-Dimensional Metal Oxide Nanostructures for Gas Sensors 435 Andrea Ponzoni, Guido Faglia, and Giorgio Sberveglieri 20.1 Introduction, 435 20.2 Working Principle, 435 20.2.1 Electrical Conduction in Metal Oxides, 435 20.2.2 Adsorption/Desorption Phenomena, 436 20.2.3 Transduction Mechanism, 436 20.2.4 Sensor Response Parameters, 438 20.3 Bundled Nanowire Devices, 438 20.3.1 Integration of Nanowires into Functional Devices, 438 20.3.2 Conductometric Gas Sensors, 439 20.4 Single-Nanowire Devices, 442 20.4.1 Integration of Nanowires into Functional Devices, 442 20.4.2 Role of Electrical Contacts, 442 20.4.3 Conductometric Gas Sensors, 443 20.4.4 Field-Effect Transistor (FET) Devices Based on Single Nanowires, 445 20.5 Electronic Nose, 445 20.5.1 Chemical Sensitization, 446 20.5.2 Gradient Array (KAMINA Platform), 446 20.5.3 Mixed Arrays, 447 20.6 Optical Gas Sensors, 447 20.6.1 Experimental Observations, 448 20.6.2 Working Mechanism, 448 20.7 Conclusions, 450 Acknowledgments, 450 References, 450 21 One-Dimensional Nanostructures in Plasmonics 455 Xuefeng Gu, Teng Qiu, and Paul K. Chu 21.1 Introduction, 455 21.2 1D plasmonic Waveguides, 456 21.2.1 Tradeoff between Light Confinement and Propagation Length, 456 21.2.2 Surface Plasmon Polariton (SPP) Propagation along Nanoparticle Chains, 456 21.2.3 SPP Propagation along Nanowires, 457 21.2.4 Hybrid Waveguiding Nanostructures, 457 21.2.5 Enhanced SPP Coupling between Nanowires and External Devices, 457 21.3 1D Nanostructures in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 459 21.3.1 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 459 21.3.2 Nanowires in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 460 21.3.3 Nanorods in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 461 21.3.4 Nanotubes in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 462 21.4 Plasmonic 1D Nanostructures in Photovoltaics, 464 21.4.1 Solar Cells with 1D Nanostructures as Building Elements, 465 21.4.2 Plasmonic 1D Nanostructures for Improved Photovoltaics, 466 21.5 Conclusion And Outlook, 467 Acknowledgments, 469 References, 469 22 Lateral Metallic Nanostructures for Spintronics 473 Marius V. Costache, Bart J. van Wees, and Sergio O. Valenzuela 22.1 Introduction, 473 22.2 Introduction to Spin Transport in 1D Systems, 474 22.3 Fabrication Techniques For Lateral Spin Devices, 476 22.3.1 Electron Beam Lithography, 476 22.3.2 Multistep Process Using Ion Milling for Clean Interfaces, 476 22.3.3 Shadow Evaporation Technique for Tunnel Barriers, 476 22.4 Examples of Devices Fabricated Using The Shadow Evaporation Technique, 478 Acknowledgments, 481 References, 481 23 One-Dimensional Inorganic Nanostructures for Field Emitters 483 Tianyou Zhai, Xi Wang, Liang Li, Yoshio Bando, and Dmitri Golberg 23.1 Introduction, 483 23.2 Key Factors Affecting Field Emission (FE) Performance of 1D Nanostructures, 484 23.2.1 Morphology Effects, 484 23.2.2 Phase Structure Effects, 490 23.2.3 Temperature Effects, 490 23.2.4 Light Illumination Effects, 491 23.2.5 Gas Exposure Effects, 492 23.2.6 Substrate Effects, 492 23.2.7 Gap Effects, 493 23.2.8 Composition Effects, 493 23.2.9 Hetero/branched Structure Effects, 496 23.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 497 Acknowledgment, 499 References, 499 24 One-Dimensional Field-Effect Transistors 503 Joachim Knoch 24.1 Introduction, 503 24.2 An Introduction to Field-Effect Transistors, 503 24.2.1 Fundamental Properties of Field-Effect Transistors, 503 24.2.2 One-Dimensional Geometry of Nanowires and Nanotubes, 505 24.2.3 Density of States or Quantum Capacitance, 506 24.3 One-Dimensional FETs, 508 24.3.1 Impact of Dimensionality and Dependence on Effective Mass: 1D versus 2D, 508 24.3.2 Scaling to Quantum Capacitance Limit: Intrinsic Device Performance, 508 24.3.3 Extrinsic Device Performance, 510 24.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 512 References, 512 25 Nanowire Field-Effect Transistors for Electrical Interfacing with Cells and Tissue 515 Bozhi Tian 25.1 Introduction, 515 25.1.1 How Nanowire (NW) Sensors Work, 515 25.1.2 Nanoscale Morphology for Cellular Interfacing, 516 25.2 Discussion, 516 25.2.1 Device Fabrication and Basic Characteristics, 516 25.2.2 Advantages of NWFET Sensing and Recording Systems, 517 25.2.3 Extracellular Interfaces of NWFET and Tissue/Cells, 518 25.2.4 Intracellular Interfaces of NWFET and Cells, 524 25.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 526 Acknowledgment, 528 References, 528 Author Biographies 531 Index 551