Peppers: Biological, Health, and Postharvest Perspectives

There is an increased awareness on the relevance of nutraceutical and functional foods as alternatives to harmful synthetic additives used in industry. Different peppers, with an abundance of bioactive compounds, are highlighted in this book, which provides a comprehensive evaluaton of their importance as nutraceutical and functional foods to all stakeholders in the agri-food and pharmaceutical industries. Peppers: Biological, Health, and Postharvest Perspectives is a valuable addition to the existing information resource on peppers. Key features: Highlights the advancements made in biodiversity, biochemistry and biosynthesis of bioactive compounds of peppers. Reviews the effects of processing methods on the quality of peppers to facilitate further research and development of foods having pepper as an essential nutritional component. Provides help in selecting better processing methods for the management of nutritional attributes and health benefits of peppers. The book provides a blend of basic and advanced information for postgraduate students, researchers and scientists

Table of Contents:
Preface xii The Editors xiii List of Contributors xiv Chapter 1 Peppers—an Overview on The Bioactives and their Nutritional, Functional Properties and Post-Harvest Processing 1 Prasad S. Variyar and Penna Suprasanna 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Capsicum 2 1.3 Chemical Composition 3 1.4 Capsaicinoids and Carotenes: Biosynthesis and Genetic Regulation 4 1.5 Quality Evaluation of Peppers 6 1.6 Effect of Pre- and Post-Harvest Factors on the Quality of Pepper Fruits 7 1.7 Nutritional and Functional Properties 9 1.8 Medicinal and Health Benefits 9 1.8.1 Anti-Inflammatory Effects 9 1.8.2 Cardiovascular Health 9 1.8.3 Immunity Booster 10 1.8.4 Alleviates Prostate Cancer 10 1.8.5 Prevention of Stomach Ulcers 10 1.8.6 Reduces Risk of Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity 10 1.8.7 Antirhinitis Agent 10 1.9 Novel and Diverse Products of Pepper 10 1.10 Post-Harvest Processing for Improved Production of Bioactive Compounds 11 1.11 Conclusions 12 References 12 Chapter 2 Genetic Diversity for Fruit Quality Traits in Chilli (Capsicum spp.) 16 Pavani, N., Satyaprakash Barik, Naresh Ponnam and Madhavi Reddy K 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Pepper Diversity, Domestication and Conservation 17 2.3 Hybridization and Crossability 19 2.4 Genetic Resources and Breeding of Peppers for Industrial Use 19 2.5 Conclusions 21 References 21 Chapter 3 Contribution of Interspecific Hybridization for Improvement in Quality and Productivity in Pepper 25 Kazım Mavi 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 Systematic Advances in Interspecific Hybridization 27 3.3 Problems and Solutions in Interspecific Hybridization 30 3.3.1 Hybridization Barriers 30 3.3.2 Post-Fertilization Abnormalities and Embryo Rescue 30 3.3.3 Infertility (Sterility) in Interspecific Hybrids 31 3.4 Detection of Interspecific Hybrids by Molecular Techniques 33 3.5 Quality Development Through Interspecific Hybridization 33 3.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 35 References 36 Chapter 4 Chemical Diversity and Functionality of Capsaicinoids 40 Inder Pal Singh, Nobuyuki Mase, Ankur Kumar Tanwar, Neha Sengar and Olivia Chatterjee 4.1 Introduction 41 4.1.1 Capsaicinoids 41 4.1.2 Capsiates (Natural Capsaicin Analogues) 42 4.1.3 Biosynthesis of Capsaicinoids 43 4.1.4 Capsaicin 43 4.1.5 Metabolism of Capsaicin 44 4.2 Pharmacological Activity of Capsaicinoids 45 4.2.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 45 4.2.2 Antidiabetic Activity 46 4.2.3 Antioxidant Activity 47 4.2.4 CNS Activity 47 4.2.5 Cardiovascular Activity 48 4.2.6 Chemopreventive Activity 48 4.2.7 Hypocholesterolemic and Hypolipidemic Activity 49 4.2.8 Antiulcer Property 50 4.3 Structure Activity Relationship (SAR) of Capsaicinoids 50 4.3.1 Substitution in A Region 50 4.3.2 Substitution in B Region 53 4.3.3 Substitution in C Region 55 4.4 Conclusion 59 References 60 Chapter 5 Analytical Methods for Capsaicinoids and Other Bioactive Metabolites 65 Inder Pal Singh, Dharmistha Rajput and Debanjan Chatterjee 5.1 Introduction 65 5.1 Introduction 65 5.2 Extraction Techniques 67 5.3.1 Chromatographic Techniques 71 5.3.2 Spectroscopic Techniques 74 5.3.3 Hyphenated Techniques 76 5.4 Summary 78 References 78 Chapter 6 Transcriptomics of Chili Pepper Fruit with Emphasis on the Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway 80 Maria Guadalupe Villa-Rivera, Octavio Martínez and Neftalí Ochoa-Alejo 6.1 Introduction 80 6.2 Applications of Transcriptomic Analysis in Chili Pepper 81 6.2.1 Transcriptomic Analysis in the Study of Bioactive Compounds 83 6.3 Transcriptomics and Transcriptional Regulation of the Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway 84 6.3.1 Carotenoid Biosynthesis Pathway in Chili Pepper 84 6.3.2 Transcriptional Regulation of Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway 87 6.4 Gene Functional Networks of Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway in Chili Pepper 88 6.4.1 Time Expression Profiles of Genes Involved in Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Chili Pepper 88 6.4.2 Location of Putative Binding Sites of Transcription Factors Candidates on Structural Genes 92 6.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 93 References 94 Chapter 7 Chemistry and Post-Harvest Processing Technologies of Peppers (Capsicum spp.) 98 Filipe Kayodè Felisberto dos Santos, Rayssa Ribeiro, Karine Sayuri Lima Miki, Barbara Elisabeth Teixeira-Costa and Valdir Florêncio da Veiga Júnior 7.1 Introduction 98 7.2 Peppers and Their Chemical Complexity 99 7.2.1 Capsaicinoids 99 7.2.2 Carotenoids 100 7.2.3 Flavonoids 102 7.3 Update on Peppers’ Medicinal Properties and Applications 102 7.4 Physical, Chemical and Non-Destructive Post-Harvest Technologies 105 7.4.1 Dehydration 105 7.4.2 Freezing 106 7.4.3 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 106 7.4.4 Application of Edible Coatings 107 7.5 Trends and Perspectives 108 References 109 Chapter 8 Capsaicin and Capsaicinoids—Sources, Characteristics, Isolation, Food and Medical Uses 113 Talía Hernández-Pérez and Octavio Paredes-López 8.1 Introduction 113 8.2 Main Characteristics of Capsaicinoids 114 8.3 Pungency 115 8.4 Non-Pungent Compounds 116 8.5 Nutraceutical and Medical Potential of Capsaicin 117 8.5.1 Antiobesity Effect 117 8.5.2 Analgesic Potential 119 8.5.3 Anticancer Activity 120 8.5.4 Urinary System Disorders 120 8.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 121 8.7 Acknowledgements 122 References 122 Chapter 9 Medicinal Bioactive Secondary Metabolites of Indian Chili (Capsicum sp.) 126 Debosree Ghosh, Partha Sarathi Singha and Ramkrishna Ghosh 9.1 Introduction 126 9.2 Secondary Metabolites as Bioactive Phytocompounds 127 9.3 Secondary Metabolites of Indian Chilies and Their Medicinal Properties 128 9.3.1 Alkaloids from Chili 129 9.3.2 Terpenoids 129 9.3.3 Terpenoid-Alkaloids 130 9.3.4 Polyphenols 130 9.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 133 9.5 Acknowledgement 134 References 134 Chapter 10 Recent Trends in Pepper-Derived Products for Food Matrices 138 Somnath Basak and Rekha S. Singhal 10.1 Introduction 138 10.2 Oleoresins and Essential Oils 139 10.3 Inclusion Complexes 141 10.4 Essential Oil–Based Emulsions 144 10.5 Essential Oil–Based Powder 145 10.6 Pepper-Based Beverage 145 10.7 Fermented Whole Peppers 146 10.8 Pepper-Based Protein 150 10.9 Summary 150 References 151 Chapter 11 Capsaicinoids from Sustainable Capsicum Production for Nutraceutical Development � 155 Mursleen Yasin, Michelle Donovan-Mak, Zhong-Hua Chen and Sunil K. Panchal 11.1 Introduction 155 11.2 The Genus Capsicum 156 11.3 Global Production of Capsicums and Chillies 157 11.4 The Science of Pungency in Capsicum 158 11.5 Capsaicinoids 159 11.6 Production of Capsaicinoids 160 11.7 Factors Affecting Capsaicinoid Production 161 11.7.1 Genetics 162 11.7.2 Light 163 11.7.3 Water Availability 163 11.7.4 Mineral Nutrients 164 11.7.5 Temperature 164 11.8 Growth and Developmental Stages 164 11.9 Properties of Capsaicinoids and Capsinoids 165 11.10 Extraction of Capsaicinoids 166 11.10.1 Methods of Extraction 166 11.11 Properties of Capsaicin 168 11.12 Postharvest Technology to Increase Production of Capsaicinoids 169 11.13 Metabolomics in Capsicums 170 11.13.1 Carotenoids 171 11.13.2 Phenolics 172 11.13.3 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) 172 11.14 Solutions Toward Reducing Capsicum and Chilli Waste 173 11.15 Sustainable Use of Waste of Capsicum Crops 173 11.16 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 174 References 174 Chapter 12 Post-Harvest Handling and Processing of Green and Red Indian Chillies 184 A.J. Sachin, P. Preethi, S.V.R. Reddy and P. Naresh 12.1 Introduction 185 12.2 Green Chillies 185 12.2.1 Harvesting, Packaging, and Transportation 185 12.2.2 Processing and Value Addition 186 12.3 Dry Chillies 187 12.3.1 Drying 187 12.3.2 Packaging and Storage 190 12.3.3 Sorting and Grading 191 12.4 Conclusion 191 References 191 Chapter 13 Influence of Packaging on Postharvest Quality of Peppers 194 Komal Sonawane and Ramanand Jagtap 13.1 Introduction 194 13.2 Pepper Packaging 195 13.2.1 Pepper Characteristics 195 13.2.2 Contamination and Flavor Preservation in Pepper Packaging: From Harvesting to Processing 196 13.2.3 Oxygen Interaction with Packaging Material 196 13.2.4 Interaction of Pepper Ingredients with Packaging Material 197 13.3 Dependability of Oxygen Permeation on Structure of Polymeric Packaging Material 198 13.4 Types of Packaging Material 199 13.5 Recent Advances in Pepper Packaging 202 13.5.1 Single-Layer and Double-Layer Packaging 202 13.5.2 Multilayer Packaging 203 13.6 Disposal Challenges for Multilayer System 204 13.7 Active Packaging Systems .206 13.8 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 206 13.9 Sustainable and Eco-Friendly Packaging 207 13.9.1 Biocompostable Packaging 208 13.10 Intelligent Packaging 208 13.11 Innovative Packaging Designs 209 13.12 Nanohybrid-Based Biocomposites 210 13.13 Packaging Design and Structure 211 13.14 Storage Duration 211 13.15 Conclusions 212 References 213 Chapter 14 Pepper Fixed Oil: Novel Source of Oil-Based Nutraceuticals 219 Ajay W. Tumaney, Vallamkondu Manasa, Palak Daga and Salony Raghunath Vaishnav 14.1 Introduction 219 14.1.1 Overview of Pepper Production 219 14.1.2 Health Benefits of Pepper Oil 220 14.2 Pepper Oils 223 14.2.1 Total Oil 224 14.2.2 Essential Oil 225 14.2.3 Fixed Oil 225 14.2.4 Oleoresins 226 14.3 Oil Nutraceuticals 226 14.3.1 Polyphenols 227 14.3.2 Tocopherols 227 14.3.3 Phytosterols 228 14.3.4 Antioxidants 229 14.4 Conclusion 230 References 230 Chapter 15 Effect of Newer Non-Thermal Processing 235 Admajith M. Kaimal, Amrutha M. Kaimal and Rekha S. Singhal 15.1 Introduction 235 15.1.1 A Brief Overview of Capsicum Production 236 15.1.2 Post-Harvest Scenario and Losses 236 15.2 Impact of Paprika Constituents During Storage 237 15.2.1 Proximate Composition 237 15.2.2 Vitamins 239 15.2.3 Polyphenols 239 15.2.4 Carotenoids 239 15.2.5 Capsaicinoids 240 15.3 Non-Thermal Processing of Paprika 240 15.3.1 High-Pressure Processing (HPP)� 241 15.3.2 Pulsed Electric Field Processing (PEF) 244 15.3.3 Pulsed Light Processing (PL) 245 15.3.4 Ozone 246 15.3.5 Non-Thermal Plasma 248 15.3.6 Irradiation 250 15.3.7 Ultrasound 251 15.3.8 Other Novel Technologies 251 15.3.9 Synergistic Technologies 252 15.4 Effect of Non-Thermal Process on Paprika Constituents 253 15.4.1 Proximate Composition 253 15.4.2 Polyphenols 256 15.4.3 Carotenoids 257 15.4.4 Capsaicinoids 257 15.5 Food Safety and Regulatory Challenges 257 15.6 Future Prospects 258 15.7 Conclusions � 258 References 258 Chapter 16 Adulteration and Authenticity Testing of Chilli 264 B. Sasikumar 16.1 Introduction 264 16.2 Adulterants in Chilli 265 16.3 Techniques for Adulterant Detection 265 16.3.1 Physical and Sensing Methods 265 16.3.2 Analytical Methods 267 16.3.3 Other Methods 272 16.4 Chilli—an Adulterant .273 16.5 Future Perspectives and Conclusion 274 References 274 Index 281