Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization

This Third Edition updates a landmark text with the latest findings The Third Edition of the internationally lauded Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization brings the text fully up-to-date with the latest developments in the field and includes new pedagogical tools to assist readers. Not only does the Third Edition set forth all the latest measurement techniques, but it also examines new interpretations and new applications of existing techniques. Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization remains the sole text dedicated to characterization techniques for measuring semiconductor materials and devices. Coverage includes the full range of electrical and optical characterization methods, including the more specialized chemical and physical techniques. Readers familiar with the previous two editions will discover a thoroughly revised and updated Third Edition, including: Updated and revised figures and examples reflecting the most current data and information 260 new references offering access to the latest research and discussions in specialized topics New problems and review questions at the end of each chapter to test readers' understanding of the material In addition, readers will find fully updated and revised sections in each chapter. Plus, two new chapters have been added: Charge-Based and Probe Characterization introduces charge-based measurement and Kelvin probes. This chapter also examines probe-based measurements, including scanning capacitance, scanning Kelvin force, scanning spreading resistance, and ballistic electron emission microscopy. Reliability and Failure Analysis examines failure times and distribution functions, and discusses electromigration, hot carriers, gate oxide integrity, negative bias temperature instability, stress-induced leakage current, and electrostatic discharge. Written by an internationally recognized authority in the field, Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization remains essential reading for graduate students as well as for professionals working in the field of semiconductor devices and materials. An Instructor's Manual presenting detailed solutions to all the problems in the book is available from the Wiley editorial department.

Table of Contents:
Preface to Third Edition xiii 1 Resistivity 1 1.1 Introduction, 1 1.2 Two-Point Versus Four-Point Probe, 2 1.2.1 Correction Factors, 8 1.2.2 Resistivity of Arbitrarily Shaped Samples, 14 1.2.3 Measurement Circuits, 18 1.2.4 Measurement Errors and Precautions, 18 1.3 Wafer Mapping, 21 1.3.1 Double Implant, 21 1.3.2 Modulated Photoreflectance, 23 1.3.3 Carrier Illumination (CI), 24 1.3.4 Optical Densitometry, 25 1.4 Resistivity Profiling, 25 1.4.1 Differential Hall Effect (DHE), 26 1.4.2 Spreading Resistance Profiling (SRP), 29 1.5 Contactless Methods, 34 1.5.1 Eddy Current, 34 1.6 Conductivity Type, 38 1.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 40 Appendix 1.1 Resistivity as a Function of Doping Density, 41 Appendix 1.2 Intrinsic Carrier Density, 43 References, 44 Problems, 50 Review Questions, 59 2 Carrier and Doping Density 61 2.1 Introduction, 61 2.2 Capacitance-Voltage (C-V), 61 2.2.1 Differential Capacitance, 61 2.2.2 Band Offsets, 68 2.2.3 Maximum-Minimum MOS-C Capacitance, 71 2.2.4 Integral Capacitance, 75 2.2.5 Mercury Probe Contacts, 76 2.2.6 Electrochemical C–V Profiler (ECV), 77 2.3 Current-Voltage (I-V), 79 2.3.1 MOSFET Substrate Voltage—Gate Voltage, 79 2.3.2 MOSFET Threshold Voltage, 81 2.3.3 Spreading Resistance, 82 2.4 Measurement Errors and Precautions, 82 2.4.1 Debye Length and Voltage Breakdown, 82 2.4.2 Series Resistance, 83 2.4.3 Minority Carriers and Interface Traps, 89 2.4.4 Diode Edge and Stray Capacitance, 90 2.4.5 Excess Leakage Current, 91 2.4.6 Deep Level Dopants/Traps, 91 2.4.7 Semi-Insulating Substrates, 93 2.4.8 Instrumental Limitations, 94 2.5 Hall Effect, 94 2.6 Optical Techniques, 97 2.6.1 Plasma Resonance, 97 2.6.2 Free Carrier Absorption, 98 2.6.3 Infrared Spectroscopy, 99 2.6.4 Photoluminescence (PL), 101 2.7 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), 102 2.8 Rutherford Backscattering (RBS), 103 2.9 Lateral Profiling, 104 2.10 Strengths and Weaknesses, 105 Appendix 2.1 Parallel or Series Connection?, 107 Appendix 2.2 Circuit Conversion, 108 References, 109 Problems, 117 Review Questions, 124 3 Contact Resistance and Schottky Barriers 127 3.1 Introduction, 127 3.2 Metal-Semiconductor Contacts, 128 3.3 Contact Resistance, 131 3.4 Measurement Techniques, 135 3.4.1 Two-Contact Two-Terminal Method, 135 3.4.2 Multiple-Contact Two-Terminal Methods, 138 3.4.3 Four-Terminal Contact Resistance Method, 149 3.4.4 Six-Terminal Contact Resistance Method, 156 3.4.5 Non-Planar Contacts, 156 3.5 Schottky Barrier Height, 157 3.5.1 Current-Voltage, 158 3.5.2 Current—Temperature, 160 3.5.3 Capacitance-Voltage, 161 3.5.4 Photocurrent, 162 3.5.5 Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy (BEEM), 163 3.6 Comparison of Methods, 163 3.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 164 Appendix 3.1 Effect of Parasitic Resistance, 165 Appendix 3.2 Alloys for Contacts to Semiconductors, 167 References, 168 Problems, 174 Review Questions, 184 4 Series Resistance, Channel Length and Width, and Threshold Voltage 185 4.1 Introduction, 185 4.2 PN Junction Diodes, 185 4.2.1 Current-Voltage, 185 4.2.2 Open-Circuit Voltage Decay (OCVD), 188 4.2.3 Capacitance-Voltage (C–V ), 190 4.3 Schottky Barrier Diodes, 190 4.3.1 Series Resistance, 190 4.4 Solar Cells, 192 4.4.1 Series Resistance—Multiple Light Intensities, 195 4.4.2 Series Resistance—Constant Light Intensity, 196 4.4.3 Shunt Resistance, 197 4.5 Bipolar Junction Transistors, 198 4.5.1 Emitter Resistance, 200 4.5.2 Collector Resistance, 202 4.5.3 Base Resistance, 202 4.6 MOSFETS, 206 4.6.1 Series Resistance and Channel Length–Current-Voltage, 206 4.6.2 Channel Length—Capacitance-Voltage, 216 4.6.3 Channel Width, 218 4.7 MESFETS and MODFETS, 219 4.8 Threshold Voltage, 222 4.8.1 Linear Extrapolation, 223 4.8.2 Constant Drain Current, 225 4.8.3 Sub-threshold Drain Current, 226 4.8.4 Transconductance, 227 4.8.5 Transconductance Derivative, 228 4.8.6 Drain Current Ratio, 228 4.9 Pseudo MOSFET, 230 4.10 Strengths and Weaknesses, 231 Appendix 4.1 Schottky Diode Current-Voltage Equation, 231 References, 232 Problems, 238 Review Questions, 250 5 Defects 251 5.1 Introduction, 251 5.2 Generation-Recombination Statistics, 253 5.2.1 A Pictorial View, 253 5.2.2 A Mathematical Description, 255 5.3 Capacitance Measurements, 258 5.3.1 Steady-State Measurements, 259 5.3.2 Transient Measurements, 259 5.4 Current Measurements, 267 5.5 Charge Measurements, 269 5.6 Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS), 270 5.6.1 Conventional DLTS, 270 5.6.2 Interface Trapped Charge DLTS, 280 5.6.3 Optical and Scanning DLTS, 283 5.6.4 Precautions, 285 5.7 Thermally Stimulated Capacitance and Current, 288 5.8 Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy (PAS), 289 5.9 Strengths and Weaknesses, 292 Appendix 5.1 Activation Energy and Capture Cross-Section, 293 Appendix 5.2 Time Constant Extraction, 294 Appendix 5.3 Si and GaAs Data, 296 References, 301 Problems, 308 Review Questions, 316 6 Oxide and Interface Trapped Charges, Oxide Thickness 319 6.1 Introduction, 319 6.2 Fixed, Oxide Trapped, and Mobile Oxide Charge, 321 6.2.1 Capacitance-Voltage Curves, 321 6.2.2 Flatband Voltage, 327 6.2.3 Capacitance Measurements, 331 6.2.4 Fixed Charge, 334 6.2.5 Gate-Semiconductor Work Function Difference, 335 6.2.6 Oxide Trapped Charge, 338 6.2.7 Mobile Charge, 338 6.3 Interface Trapped Charge, 342 6.3.1 Low Frequency (Quasi-static) Methods, 342 6.3.2 Conductance, 347 6.3.3 High Frequency Methods, 350 6.3.4 Charge Pumping, 352 6.3.5 MOSFET Sub-threshold Current, 359 6.3.6 DC-IV, 361 6.3.7 Other Methods, 363 CONTENTS ix 6.4 Oxide Thickness, 364 6.4.1 Capacitance-Voltage, 364 6.4.2 Current-Voltage, 369 6.4.3 Other Methods, 369 6.5 Strengths and Weaknesses, 369 Appendix 6.1 Capacitance Measurement Techniques, 371 Appendix 6.2 Effect of Chuck Capacitance and Leakage Current, 372 References, 374 Problems, 381 Review Questions, 387 7 Carrier Lifetimes 389 7.1 Introduction, 389 7.2 Recombination Lifetime/Surface Recombination Velocity, 390 7.3 Generation Lifetime/Surface Generation Velocity, 394 7.4 Recombination Lifetime—Optical Measurements, 395 7.4.1 Photoconductance Decay (PCD), 399 7.4.2 Quasi-Steady-State Photoconductance (QSSPC), 402 7.4.3 Short-Circuit Current/Open-Circuit Voltage Decay (SCCD/OCVD), 402 7.4.4 Photoluminescence Decay (PLD), 404 7.4.5 Surface Photovoltage (SPV), 404 7.4.6 Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (SSSCC), 411 7.4.7 Free Carrier Absorption, 413 7.4.8 Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC), 416 7.5 Recombination Lifetime—Electrical Measurements, 417 7.5.1 Diode Current-Voltage, 417 7.5.2 Reverse Recovery (RR), 420 7.5.3 Open-Circuit Voltage Decay (OCVD), 422 7.5.4 Pulsed MOS Capacitor, 424 7.5.5 Other Techniques, 428 7.6 Generation Lifetime—Electrical Measurements, 429 7.6.1 Gate-Controlled Diode, 429 7.6.2 Pulsed MOS Capacitor, 432 7.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 440 Appendix 7.1 Optical Excitation, 441 Appendix 7.2 Electrical Excitation, 448 References, 448 Problems, 458 Review Questions, 464 8 Mobility 465 8.1 Introduction, 465 8.2 Conductivity Mobility, 465 8.3 Hall Effect and Mobility, 466 8.3.1 Basic Equations for Uniform Layers or Wafers, 466 8.3.2 Non-uniform Layers, 471 8.3.3 Multi Layers, 474 8.3.4 Sample Shapes and Measurement Circuits, 475 8.4 Magnetoresistance Mobility, 479 8.5 Time-of-Flight Drift Mobility, 482 8.6 MOSFET Mobility, 489 8.6.1 Effective Mobility, 489 8.6.2 Field-Effect Mobility, 500 8.6.3 Saturation Mobility, 502 8.7 Contactless Mobility, 502 8.8 Strengths and Weaknesses, 502 Appendix 8.1 Semiconductor Bulk Mobilities, 503 Appendix 8.2 Semiconductor Surface Mobilities, 506 Appendix 8.3 Effect of Channel Frequency Response, 506 Appendix 8.4 Effect of Interface Trapped Charge, 507 References, 508 Problems, 514 Review Questions, 521 9 Charge-based and Probe Characterization 523 9.1 Introduction, 523 9.2 Background, 524 9.3 Surface Charging, 525 9.4 The Kelvin Probe, 526 9.5 Applications, 533 9.5.1 Surface Photovoltage (SPV), 533 9.5.2 Carrier Lifetimes, 534 9.5.3 Surface Modification, 537 9.5.4 Near-Surface Doping Density, 538 9.5.5 Oxide Charge, 538 9.5.6 Oxide Thickness and Interface Trap Density, 540 9.5.7 Oxide Leakage Current, 541 9.6 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM), 542 9.6.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM), 543 9.6.2 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), 544 9.6.3 Scanning Capacitance Microscopy (SCM), 547 9.6.4 Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy (SKPM), 550 9.6.5 Scanning Spreading Resistance Microscopy (SSRM), 553 9.6.6 Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy (BEEM), 554 9.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 556 References, 556 Problems, 560 Review Questions, 561 10 Optical Characterization 563 10.1 Introduction, 563 10.2 Optical Microscopy, 564 10.2.1 Resolution, Magnification, Contrast, 565 10.2.2 Dark-Field, Phase, and Interference Contrast Microscopy, 568 10.2.3 Confocal Optical Microscopy, 570 10.2.4 Interferometric Microscopy, 572 10.2.5 Defect Etches, 575 10.2.6 Near-Field Optical Microscopy (NFOM), 575 10.3 Ellipsometry, 579 10.3.1 Theory, 579 10.3.2 Null Ellipsometry, 581 10.3.3 Rotating Analyzer Ellipsometry, 582 10.3.4 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE), 583 10.3.5 Applications, 584 10.4 Transmission, 585 10.4.1 Theory, 585 10.4.2 Instrumentation, 587 10.4.3 Applications, 590 10.5 Reflection, 592 10.5.1 Theory, 592 10.5.2 Applications, 594 10.5.3 Internal Reflection Infrared Spectroscopy, 598 10.6 Light Scattering, 599 10.7 Modulation Spectroscopy, 600 10.8 Line Width, 601 10.8.1 Optical-Physical Methods, 601 10.8.2 Electrical Methods, 603 10.9 Photoluminescence (PL), 604 10.10 Raman Spectroscopy, 608 10.11 Strengths and Weaknesses, 610 Appendix 10.1 Transmission Equations, 611 Appendix 10.2 Absorption Coefficients and Refractive Indices for Selected Semiconductors, 613 References, 615 Problems, 621 Review Questions, 626 11 Chemical and Physical Characterization 627 11.1 Introduction, 627 11.2 Electron Beam Techniques, 628 11.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), 629 11.2.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES), 634 11.2.3 Electron Microprobe (EMP), 639 11.2.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), 645 11.2.5 Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC), 649 11.2.6 Cathodoluminescence (CL), 651 11.2.7 Low-Energy, High-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED), 652 11.3 Ion Beam Techniques, 653 11.3.1 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), 654 11.3.2 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS), 659 11.4 X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Techniques, 665 11.4.1 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), 666 11.4.2 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), 668 11.4.3 X-Ray Topography (XRT), 671 11.4.4 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA), 674 11.5 Strengths and Weaknesses, 676 Appendix 11.1 Selected Features of Some Analytical Techniques, 678 References, 678 Problems, 686 Review Questions, 687 12 Reliability and Failure Analysis 689 12.1 Introduction, 689 12.2 Failure Times and Acceleration Factors, 690 12.2.1 Failure Times, 690 12.2.2 Acceleration Factors, 690 12.3 Distribution Functions, 692 12.4 Reliability Concerns, 695 12.4.1 Electromigration (EM), 695 12.4.2 Hot Carriers, 701 12.4.3 Gate Oxide Integrity (GOI), 704 12.4.4 Negative Bias Temperature Instability (NBTI), 711 12.4.5 Stress Induced Leakage Current (SILC), 712 12.4.6 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD), 712 12.5 Failure Analysis Characterization Techniques, 713 12.5.1 Quiescent Drain Current (IDDQ), 713 12.5.2 Mechanical Probes, 715 12.5.3 Emission Microscopy (EMMI), 715 12.5.4 Fluorescent Microthermography (FMT), 718 12.5.5 Infrared Thermography (IRT), 718 12.5.6 Voltage Contrast, 718 12.5.7 Laser Voltage Probe (LVP), 719 12.5.8 Liquid Crystals (LC), 720 12.5.9 Optical Beam Induced Resistance Change (OBIRCH), 721 12.5.10 Focused Ion Beam (FIB), 723 12.5.11 Noise, 723 12.6 Strengths and Weaknesses, 726 Appendix 12.1 Gate Currents, 728 References, 730 Problems, 737 Review Questions, 740 Appendix 1 List of Symbols 741 Appendix 2 Abbreviations and Acronyms 749 Index 755